Implications Career Counseling Based On Hollands Theory

Implications Cargoner Counseling Based On geneva TheoryIt is butt Hollands view that career choice and career adjustment represent an extension of a persons personality. People distill themselves, their interests and adjourn accounts, by means of their excogitate choices and experience. In his surmisal, Holland assumes that mountains impressions and generalizations nearly work, which he refers to as stereo causes, are generally accurate. By studying and refining these stereotypes, Holland assigns both race and work milieus to specific categories.Holland (1966, 1973, 1992, 1997) has published five books that explain his typological system. for all(prenominal) one book represents an update and a further-refined version of earlier work in the development of his theory. The -August 1999 issue of The Journal of Vocational Behavior contains 12 articles which procure John Hollands 40-year contribution to career development theory. Two psychological inventories were classi c in the development of his theory the Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, i985b) and the Self-Directed seem (Holland, 1994). These instruments, in different ways, measure self-perceived competencies and interests, which are an appreciatement of an individuals personality. Holland (Holland, 1997) recognizes that his theory can account for only a portion of the variables that underlie career selection. He is give the sack in stating that, his theoretical model can be affected by age, gender, social class, intelligence, and program line. with that understood, he goes on to specify how the individual and the environment interact with for each one other through the development of six typesRealistic Investigative, tasteful, neighborly, ambitious, and Conventional. Both individuals and environments consist of a combination of types.The Six TypesRealisticThe Realistic Environment The Realistic (R) environment shapes physical demands on the person. Such work settings start o ut tools, machines, or animals that the individual manipulates. In such a setting, individuals are required to have proficient competencies that provide throw in them to do such things as fix machines, repair electronic equipment, drive cars or trucks, herd animals, or deal with other physical aspects of their environment. The skill to work with things is to a greater extent important than the ability to interact with other peck. Construction sites, factories, and auto garages are examples of environments that provide machinery or other things for Realistic people to master. nigh Realistic environments require a great deal of physical agility or strength, such as roofing, popdoor painting, and pipe fitting. These environments whitethorn be hazardous and may produce more physical illness or accidents than other work environments.The Realistic Personality Type Realistic people are seeming to enjoy using tools or machines in their hobbies or work. They tend to seek to develop c ompetencies in such areas as plumbing, roofing, electrical and automotive repair, farming, and other technical disciplines. They are apt to like production lines that are actually practical and teach the use of mechanical or physical skills. Realistic people are apparent to have little tolerance of abstract and theoretical description Often, they approach problems, whether mechanical or personal, in a practical or problem-solving manner. They are believably to valueInvestigativeThe Investigative Environment The Investigative (I) environment is one in which people search for solutions to problems through mathematical and scientific interests and competencies. In such a situation, people are encouraged to use complex and abstract thinking to purpose problems creatively. examenples of occupations that offer the opportunity to use analytical thinking skills are computer programmer, physician, mathematician, biologist, apprehension teacher, veterinarian, and research and developme nt manager. In each of these environments, cautious and critical thinking is valued. Individuals are credibly to direct to use logic and precise prinkd thinking in order to find solutions to problems in these fields. These jobs require that people use their intellect to work independently to light up problems. They are non needed or encouraged to use human relations skills to solve problems, nor are they likely to need to use thachines. For example, a computer programmer .uses logic to skeleton out solutions to problems (an Investigative environment), whereas the computer technician works with machinery and may assemble it or fix it (a Realistic environment).The Investigative Personality Type The Investigative person is likely to enjoy puzzles and challenges that require the use of intellect Such a person is apt to enjoy learning and to feel confident somewhat his or her ability to solve mathematical and scientific problems. Such people often enjoy reading approximately sc ience and discussing scientific issues. They seek to work independently to solve problems such as mathematical or scientific questions. They are likely to enjoy courses in math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and other physical or biological sciences. They are not likely to enjoy supervising other people or dealing directly with personal problems, but they may enjoy analyzing or searching for solutions to psychological problems. delicateThe exquisite Environment The Aitistic (A) environment is one that is free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression. Such an environment offers much freedom in maturation products and answers. Examples of occupations in which people can use creative and unconventional ways to express themselves are musician, fine artist, and freelance writer. Such settings allow people to dress out the way they wish, keep few.appointments, and structure their own time. These work environments encourage personal and emotional expression pref erably than logical expression. If tools are used, they are used to express oneself (for example, a clarinet or a paintbrush) rather than as a means to complete a task (for example, an electricdrill or a wrench). The esthetical Personality Type The Artistic person likes the opportunity to express himself or herself in a free and unsystematic way, creating music, art, or committal to writing. Such people may use instruments to do this, such as a violin, the voice, sculpting tools, or a word processor. They are likely to want to improve their ability in language, art, music, or writing. Originality and creativity are particularly important in expression. To use a painted by-numbers kit would be deeply offensive to an Artistic type, who needs and desires the opportunity to express herself or himself in a free and open manner. A pure Artistic type would dislike technical writing and would prefer writing fiction or poetry.SocialThe Social Environment The Social (5) environment is one t hat encourages people to be flexible and understanding of each other, where people can work with others through helping with personal or career problems,others, affecting others spiritually, and being socially responsible. The Social environment emphasizes human determine such as being idealistic, kind, friendly, and generous. These ideals or so commonly exist in the education, social service, and mental health professions. Examples of these occupations are elementary school teacher, special education teacher, high school teacher, marriage counselor, c ciphering psychologist, speech therapist, school superintendent, and psychiatrist.The Social Personality Type The Social person is interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal services. Social people enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork rather than through delegation. Preferring to talk and resolve complex problems that may be ethical or idealis tic in nature, they often choose to avoid working with machines. They seek out environments where they can use verbal and social skills, such as in education, welfare, and mental health.EnterprisingThe Enterprising Environment The Enterprising (E) environment is one where people manage and persuade others in order to attain organizational or personal goals. These are situations where finance and economic issues are of prime importance and risks may be taken to achieve rewards. In such an environment,- people tend to be self-confident, sociable, and assertive.Its an environment where promotion and power are important, and persuasion and selling take place. Examples of Enterprising environments are sales work, buying, business management, restaurant management, politics, real estate, the stock market, insurance, and lobbying. All of these environments provide the opportunity for power, status, and wealth.The Enterprising Personality Type The achievement of wealth is particularly impo rtant for Enterprising people. They enjoy being with others and like to use verbal skills in order to sell, persuade, or lead. They tend to be assertive and popular, seek to take on leadership positions. They enjoy working with people but prefer to persuade and manage rather than to help.ConventionalThe Conventional Environment makeup and planning best describe the Conventional (C) environment. Much of the Conventional environment is an office environment, where one needs to keep records, file papers, copy materials, and organize reports. In addition to written material, the Conventional environment includes mathematical materials, such as bookkeeping and accounting records. Word processing, calculating, and copy machines are the type of equipment that is establish in a Conventional environment. Competencies that are needed to work well in a Conventional environment are clerical skills, an ability to organize, dependability, and an ability to bond directions.The Conventional Per sonality Type. The Conventional person is one who value money, being dependable, and the ability to follow rules and orders. These people prefer being in control of situations and not dealing with ambiguous requests. They enjoy an office environment where their set of earning money and following rules, regulations, and guidelines can be met. Their strengths are their clerical and numerical ability, which they use to solve straightforward problems in their environment Their relationshipsthey tend to be directed toward accomplishing tasks and establish approach to problems.Hollands Theory and Implications for Career CounselingJohn Hollands typological theory of persons and environments is regarded as the more or less influential in the field of career counseling (Brown, 2002), but this has not carried over to the field of higher education and donnish advising (Smart, Feldman, Ethington, 2000). This secret led us to explore whether or not Hollands theory and research were relevant and could shed light on the behavior and organization of college aptitude and students, which could ultimately improve the effectiveness of schoolman advising and career counseling. This article summarizes the results of our exploration.As colleges and universities have grown in size, scope, and organizational complexity, some students have found it voiceless to find a home (Astin, 1984). While students may identify with a student organization, residence hall, or activity program, we believe that the academic department is the entity where students are likely to find important mentors, peers, involvement, direction, and inspiration. Academic departments have an inherent, wide-ranging mixture of roleistics that are created by the interests and behaviors of the faculty. If students can recognize, differentiate, and understand these diverse academic environments and the faculty who overshadow them with respect to Hollands theoretical model, we believe they are more likely to find a place within the university that will increase their rapture, involvement, and persistence.Hollands person-environment fundamental interaction theory is especially important to scholars and practitioners in education and psychology. John Holland pioneered in assessing the environments of colleges and universities and their influence on students. His research has been central in the development of knowledge about nonacademic accomplishments.Hollands Theoretical ContributionsMany inventories and career assessment tools use the typology to enable individuals to categorize their interests and personal characteristics in foothold of combinations of the six types Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional. Hollands typological theory (Holland, 1997) specifies a theoretical connection between personality and environment that makes it possible to use the same RIASEC classification system for both persons and fields of study or occupations.According to RIA SEC theory, if a person and an environment have the same or similar codes, e.g., Investigative person in an Investigative environment, then the person will likely be satisfied and persist in that environment (Holland, 1997). This satisfaction will result from individuals being able to express their personality in an environment that is supportive and includes other persons who have the same or similar personality traits. It should be noted that neither people nor environments are exclusively one type but rather combinations of all six types. Their supreme type is an approximation of an ideal, modal type. The profile of the six types can be described in terms of the degree of differentiation (flat or uneven profile), consistency (level of similarity of interests or characteristics on the RIASEC hexagon for the first two letters of a three-letter Holland code), or identity (stability characteristics of the type). separately of these factors moderates predictions about the behavior related to the congruence level between a person and an environment. Persons and environments are truely described proportionally in terms of the most highly weighted three of the six Holland types, e.g., Lawyer, ESI Accounting, CEI.The environments of college campuses, fields of study, work positions, and occupations can also be classified using the RIASEC system (G. Gottfredson Holland, 1996). Hollands early efforts with the depicted object Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) and the American College Testing Program enabled him to look at colleges and academic disciplines as environments. It is important to note that RIASEC theory had its roots in higher education and later focused on occupations. However, almost any social setting, e.g., a family-owned business, a classroom, or a work group, might be characterized in terms of a RIASEC environment. Every aspect of the theory can be applied to different kinds of environments.L. S. Gottfredson and Richards (1999) traced the hist ory of Hollands efforts to classify educational and occupational environments. Holland signly studied the numbers of incumbents in a particular environment to classify occupations or colleges, but he later moved to study the characteristics of the environment independent of the persons in it. College catalogs and descriptions of academic disciplines were among the public records used to study institutional environments. Astin and Holland (1961) developed the Environmental Assessment Technique (EAT) while at the NMSC as a method for measuring college environments.Success in measuring faculty and the curriculum led Richards to explore differences in environments in Japanese (Richards, 1973) and British Commonwealth universities (Richards, 1974), U. S. uprightness schools (Richards, 1987b), and Historically Black colleges (Richards, 1987a). For example, Richards found that Japanese universities placed less tension on the Artistic area and more on the Realistic area than U.S. univers ities. The most recent instruments for measuring environments are the Position Classification Inventory (PCI G. Gottfredson Holland, 1991), a direct theory-based measure of occupational environments, and the Environmental Identity Scale (EIS Holland, 1997). These instruments make it possible to study college faculty directly and thus advance the study of academic disciplines and their effects on college students.Those who study or provide services to college students need to understand the importance of Hollands RIASEC theory. For example, Day and Rounds (1998) reported that the RIASEC typology was used similarly by ethnically diverse groups of U.S. students to organize information about their interests and options. This means that varied cultural subgroups in the United States have a sufficiently common social and educational experience that RIASEC theory and related practical applications can be applied to almost everyone. More recently, Tracey and Darcy (2002) found that college students whose schema for organizing information about interests and occupations differed from Hollands RIASEC structure had less career certainty and more career indecision. This conclusion suggests that the RIASEC hexagon may have a normative benefit regarding the classification of occupations and fields of study.DefinitionsAlthough the terms academic advising and career counseling are familiar, it is important to define them as they are used in this article. Ender, Winston, and Miller (1984) defined developmental academic advising as a systematic process based on a underweight student-advisor relationship intended to aid students in achieving educational, career, and personal goals through the utilization of the full range of institutional and community resources. The distinctions between academic advising and career counseling are primarily a matter of scope and emphasis. Career counseling is a broader, more comprehensive term not limited to educational settings. However, bot h functions involve a process of individual or base group interventions to help persons use information to make educational and occupational decisions that are invariable with their personal goals, values, interests, and skills. We believe that a theory that informs career counseling, such as John Hollands RIASEC theory, can also inform academic advising.Academic advising is more narrowly focused on college and university students and life/career decision making related to curricular and co-curricular activities. Creamer (2000) defined it as an educational activity that depends on valid explanations of complex student behaviors and institutional conditions to assist college students in making and executing educational and life plans.Traditional Application of Hollands Theory in College SettingsThe most prevalent system used by scholars is to define achievement in terms of the further acquisition, growth, or development of individuals initially prominent characteristics that is, t he competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant or primary personality type. For example, in our recent book (Smart, Feldman, Ethington, 2000), Academic Disciplines Hollands Theory and the Study of College Students and Faculty, we tested the validity of the congruence assumption by examining the extent to which college students with dominant Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising personality types who entered congruent and incongruent academic environments differed on their development of Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising abilities and interests, respectively. Separate analyses were conducted for each of the four personality types. Our findings provided rather clear support for the congruence assumption, though the show was decidedly stronger for students with Artistic and Investigative personality types than for those with Enterprising or Social personality types.The logic that flows from the tralatitious exposition of achievement illustrated in our and others findings is that students who enter congruent academic environments are more likely to be prospering and to exhibit higher levels of achievement. Conversely, students who select academic environments that are incongruent with their personality types are likely to be less successful or to manifest lower levels of achievement than would be expected.Education is of course a nurturing profession, and our task, especially as teachers and counselors, is to assist students in their efforts to be successful throughout their college experiences. Given the conceptual appeal of Hollands theory and the accumulative evidence in support of the congruence assumptionthough often of modest magnitudecounselors and others have embraced the theory in their efforts to assist students in their efforts to successfully navigate the complexities and challenges of their college experiences. In so doing, the typical advice given students is to select academic stud y (i.e., environments) that are congruent with their personality types. The strategy is simple and straightforward given the exemplary instruments developed by Holland and his colleagues to assess students personality and academic environment types simply (1) assess students personality types using such established instruments as the SDS or the SCII, (2) look up academic majors that are similar to the students personality types using such reputable references as the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson Holland, 1996) or The Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, Holland, 1994), and (3) advise students to select academic majors that are congruent with their personality types. This has been, in my opinion, the typical or traditional approach to research on the validity of the congruence assumption of Hollands theory and the use of his theory by counselors and others to assist students in the selection of academic majors in which they have the greatest li kelihood of being successful and satisfied.All this is predicated on the selection of academic majors that are congruent with students initially prominent characteristics (i.e., their dominant personality types). The vision of a college education that evolves from this strategy is one characterized by assisting students to further develop their primary or dominant interests and abilities they had as freshmen. To venture from this tried and true path was assumed to lead to dissatisfaction, failure, and dropout.An alternative Application of Hollands Theory in College SettingsSomething seemed amiss or disquieting to me as a result of such investigations of the congruence assumption in this manner. Our definition of achievement and the research strategies we employ are essentially silent as to what students who entered incongruent academic environments learned in those environments because our definition and strategy of learning or achievement focused only on students further developme nt of their initially prominent characteristics again, that is, the competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant personality type.This conceptual and analytical approach seems unfulfilling and problematic in college settings given that American higher education has historically sought to promote student growth and learning in a broad repertory of competencies and interests. This repertoire is evident in the various taxonomies of college student outcomes developed by Bowen (1977), Lenning, Lee, Micek, and Service (1977), Ewell (1984), the Association of American Colleges (1985), and others. In addition, one need only examine the professed intention of higher education as manifested in their catalogues and in the growing use of performance indicators proposed by statewide coordinating agencies to assess the effectiveness of those institutions (Nedwick, 1996). Are students who enter incongruent academic environments really less successful and, as a cons equence, their institutions less successful as well?My sense of discomfort led to two recent articles (Feldman, Smart, Ethington, 2001, in press) that are grounded in that portion of Hollands theory that is sociological in perspective and implicitly postulates a homogeneous pattern of documentation and reward by the respective academic environments irrespective of students levels of congruence with those environments. The approach is referred to as the socialization assumption or hypothesis of Hollands theory.Most important to remember here is that students success or achievement within the parameters of the socialization perspective is judged by the extent to which they grow in terms of the abilities and interests resistent and rewarded by their chosen environments (i.e., their academic majors) rather than enhancing their initially prominent characteristics. That is to say, for example, that while students who select academic majors that are incongruent with their personality ty pes may remain the same or decline in their initially prominent characteristics, they may gain or grow in the abilities and interests reinforced and rewarded by their chosen academic major. This is a very different definition of students success or achievement within the parameters of Hollands theory than the typical or traditional approach discussed earlier (i.e., students ultimate satisfaction and success in college is dependent on their choice of an academic environment that is congruent with their personality type). socialising Effects of DisciplinesThe research of Smart et al. (2000) was based on two ideas. First, faculty create academic environments inclined to require, reinforce, and reward the distinctive patterns of abilities and interests of students in a manner consistent with Hollands theory (p. 96). Second, students are not passive participants in the search for academic majors and careers rather, they actively search for and select academic environments that encourage them to develop further their characteristic interests and abilities and to enter (and be successful in) their chosen career fields (p. 52). In the following paragraphs, we summarize findings relevant to these two ideas.Smart et al. (2000) sought to discover whether or not changes in students over four years were the result of their experiences in their major fields of study (academic discipline). They reasoned that faculty chose to be in academic environments, e.g., academic departments, because of their preferences and values regarding the goals of undergraduate education and their preferred ways of socializing students. Smart et al. held that faculty are the primary representatives of academic environments and the primary contributors to behavior patterns of students who choose those environments as majors.Students and study ChangeThus far, we have concentrated our analysis on the impact of four disciplines in socializing students toward the development of interests and skills predicted by Hollands (1997) typological theory. But what about the personal choices made by students in selecting a discipline? In order to study this phenomenon, Smart et al. (2000) classified students as primary or secondary winding recruits. Primary recruits were defined as students initially selecting a discipline and staying in that field over four years. Secondary recruits were those in a different major in the fourth year.When environments (percentage of seniors in each of the four areas) rather than entering students were examined, Smart et al. (2000) found that from 1/3 to 1/2 of the four environments were composed of primary recruits, and about half of the sample were secondary recruits, e.g., the seniors who had changed their majors. This means that almost half the seniors ended up in a discipline that was different from their initial choice. This was most notable in the Artistic environment where 2/3 of the students were secondary recruits from one of the other areas a nd did not intend to major in the Artistic area in their freshman year. About 1/3 of the students migrating into the Social area came from Investigative, Enterprising, or undecided areas. Students moving into the Investigative area were most likely to come from the Enterprising area, and vice versa. These data reveal the fluid nature of students major selections and the heterogeneous nature of the four environments with respect to the students initial major preferences.Socialization in Relation to Student CharacteristicsThe specific findings of Smart et al. (2000) regarding the impact of socialization for the four discipline environments with respect to student personality characteristics are summarized below. The variability in the socialization styles and the effects of the environments, as well as how socialization effected the students congruence with the environments are described. It will be recalled that a high level the Tempter between the person and the environment, e.g., Investigative person in Investigative major, indicates high congruence.Faculty in Investigative environments place primary attention on developing analytical, mathematical, and scientific competencies, with little attention given to character and career development. They rely more than other faculty on formal and structured teaching-learning, they are subject-matter centered, and they have specific course requirements. They focus on examinations and grades. This environment has the highest percentage of primary recruits. All students in Investigative environments increased their abilities and interests in this area, and this was even stronger if they were Investigative students at entry (primary recruits). Investigative students in disciplines outside of the Investigative environment did not increase their abilities and skills in the Investigative area.Artistic environments focus on aesthetics and an emphasis on emotions, sensations, and the mind. The curriculum stresses learning ab out literature and the arts, as well as becoming a creative thinker. Faculty also emphasize character development, along with student freedom and independence in learning. Varied instructional strategies are used. About two-thirds of students in the Artistic environment did not anticipate majoring in the Artistic environment when they entered college. Artistic type students were not more likely to initially select a major in this environment. On the other hand, Artistic students majoring in Artistic environments did have stronger interests and abilities in this area. Students majoring in Artistic environments did show large increases in Artistic abilities and interests, and this was true for both primary and secondary recruits. Artistic personalities not majoring in Artistic environments did not increase their self-rated interests and abilities over four years.Social environments have a strong community orientation characterized by esteem and warmth. Like the Artistic environment, faculty place value on developing a historical perspective of the field and an emphasis on student values and character development. Unlike the Artistic environment, faculty also place value on humanitarian, teaching, and interpersonal competencies. Colleagueship and student independence and freedom are supported, and informal small group teaching is employed. The socialization effect of the environment was the smallest of the four areas studied and the effects were muddled by gender. Small increases were recorded for Social students in Social environments, but these were not much different from those for Social students in other environments. Social disciplines seem to have the least impact and Social students reported the least gains in related interests and abilities. Stated another way, the Social environments appear to be the most accepting and least demanding of the four environments studied by Smart et al. (2000).The Enterprising environment has a strong orientation to career preparation and status acquisition. Faculty focus on leadership development, the acquisition and use of power to attain career goals, and striving for common indicators of org